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    • The meaning of happiness
    • Do I trust my senses?
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      • An introduction
      • Topic 1 - Relationship with Allah
      • Topic 2 - Relationship with our fathers
      • Topic 3 - Relationship with our mothers
      • Topic 4 - Relationship with the spouses
      • Topic 5 - Relationship with Siblings
      • Topic 6: Relationship with Grandparents
    • Allah my sole companion
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    • The Man with the Lion's heart
    • Khadija radia allahu anha
    • Maryam - a source of inspiration
    • Tied Bonds
    • Jewels of the Household
  • Medicine and Health
    • MONDAY WEEKLY HEALTH SHOW
    • Friday Inspirations: Life Lessons Through Anatomy >
      • Take care of your heart
      • Do not carry the worries of life but the tools to make a positive change in it.
      • Free your mind and control your emotions
      • Take the good from every situation
      • Digest and Absorb knowledge
      • Filter your contacts
      • Sweet and Sour
      • The tongue that can bring Peace and War
      • My corrected vision
      • Are you hearing or are you listening?
    • What is cancer and its types?
    • Healthcare Publications >
      • The Eye Issue 13
      • The food journey
      • Diagnosis and Treatment of cancer
    • Lifestyle >
      • Maintaining Healthy Lifestyle
      • Nutrition and Exercise >
        • Drinking Water
        • Benefits of Avocado
        • Benefits of Honey
        • Benefits of Blackseed oil
        • Cancer >
          • Biology of Cancer >
            • Introduction to DNA
            • What are viruses?
            • Why viruses are replicated?
            • Herpes Virus
            • Viruses and Cancer
            • Vaccines
            • Penicllium and Pseudomona bacteria
            • Adaptive Immune Response
            • Innate Immune Response
          • Types of Cancer >
            • Breast Cancer
            • Prostate Cancer
            • Malignant Melanoma and Obesity
            • Neurological Tumours
          • Cancer Treatment >
            • Chemotherapy: A Introduction
        • Swimming: A sunnah issue 15
        • Yoga
        • A Good Health Makes You Rich
    • Respiratory >
      • Introduction to lungs
      • Asthma
    • The Bone and Muscles >
      • Cystic Fibrosis
      • Duchenne Muscular Dystrophy
      • Lower Back Pain
      • Neck Pain
      • Arthiritis
      • Comfort during pregnancy
    • The Heart and the Blood >
      • Heart Physiology
      • Coronary Heart Disease
      • Thrombocytopenia and its diagnosis
      • Haemolytic anaemia and its diagnosis
    • Diabetes Inspidus
    • Medicine and Islam >
      • The link between Medicine and Science with Glorious Quran >
        • Introduction
        • Embryology and the human development
        • The Power of Human Senses
        • The Brain - The Human Body's Main Processor
        • The wonders of the heart anatomy and physiology
        • The Conceptual Art of The Bone
        • The extraordinary tubular network of the small intestine and the conclusion of the research project
      • Medicine Through Islamic History
      • Healthy Wealthy tips for Ramadan
      • Prophetic Medicine
      • Ruqyah
      • Healing through Ruqya
      • Hajj and Eclipse >
        • Hajj and Health
        • Solar Eclipse
      • Spiritual Detox, Supplications and Recommended Reading
  • Spiritual Development
    • Standing up with purpose
    • Youtube Reminders
    • Quran - My Source of Solace
    • Tafseer Surah Al Fatihah
    • Temporary magnetic attraction
    • The Art of Dua
    • Remaining Faithful
    • Controlling Anger
    • My relationship with the Quran
    • Tawakkul
    • Everlasting love with Allah
    • My father who inspired me to do dawah,
  • Community Matters
    • Where is the Ummah?
    • Doses of Inspiration >
      • The importance of Amanah
      • Preparation for the Inevitable Hereafter
      • Are muslim women oppressed?
      • My thoughts on evolution
    • Giving charity and the fitnah of wealth
    • Depression in society
    • Reflection on Racism
    • A Muslimah's Identity
    • Teaching Children to Pray
    • Loving people for the sake of Allah
    • Connecting with sisters
    • Poem on sisterly love
  • Magnetic Love With Ramadan
    • Self-analysis and preparation of Ramadan
    • Poem on Ramadan
    • Mannerism Whilst Fasting
    • Reconnecting with Ramadan 2015
    • Season 1
    • Season 2
    • Season 3
    • Season 4 >
      • Part 1 Reminiscing how the Sahaba spent Ramadan
      • Part 2 Polishing Our Character
      • Part 3: Steadfastness after Ramadan
    • Season 5 >
      • The faith of Ibrahim
      • Pearls of Ramadan
      • Inspiring individuals from world history
      • The perserverance of Asiyah
    • Season 6 >
      • Pre-Ramadan Reminders
      • Daily Ramadan boost
      • Ramadan events
    • Season 7 >
      • Cementing our Purpose during COVID-19
      • Health and Well-being
    • Season 8
    • Season 9
    • Special addition to Season 9 Post- Fajr Reflections
    • Growth Through Ramadan
    • Season 10
  • Personal Motivational Quotes
    • Monday Motivation Season 1
    • General Daily Motivation Season 2
    • Opportunities to fast
    • Friday reminders
    • Lessons from Surah Kahf
    • *NEW* Sunday moments
  • Spoken Word Poetry
    • Themes >
      • Black History Month: Actions Not Words
      • Developing Yourself
      • Relationship with Allah
      • Character
      • Preparation for the Akhirah
      • Parents
      • Friendship
      • Humanity and Society
      • Reflections
      • Nature and Weather
      • Marriage and my amazing husband
  • Art
    • SUMMER FUN The Holy Land for Kids Colouring book!
    • Islamic Calligraphy
    • Customised names - Arabic Calligraphy
    • Special Occasions
    • Nature
    • Crafts: Home decor ideas
    • Crafts: Jewellery design
  • History
    • The Revival of Our Sacred Landmarks
    • History Podcasts
    • The magnitude of Islamic History
    • An insight to the Islamic Art of the Abbasid dynasty
    • April Fools Day
    • The Eminent Companions of Prophet salla allahu allayhi wa salam Season 1 >
      • Lessons of the Father of Kittens Abu Hurayrah (RA)
      • The pure faith of Ramla bint Abi Sufyan (RA)
      • A man of honour and dignity - Zubair Ibn Al Awam (RA)
      • Zaid ibn Harith - the beloved one (RA)
      • Julaybib (RA)
      • The Custodian of the Ummah - Abu Ubaydah ibn Jarrah
      • The man of paradise Bilal (RA)
      • Dhun Noorayn Uthman ibn Affan (RA)
      • Wisdom of Rumaysah bint Milhan (R
    • *Season 2 - NEW* The Eminent Companions of Prophet salla allahu allayhi wa salam >
      • Commitment of Umm Waraqah
      • The Bravery of Saad ibn Muadh
      • Consistency of Bara ibn Azib RA
      • The courage of Fatima bint Asad
    • Valentines Day
  • Guest writers
    • Zahra Makeen
    • Jamila Jones
    • Tasnim Arbee
    • Asqarini Hasbi
    • Umm Ruqaiya
    • Suleiman Athman >
      • The Quest of Salvation Part 1 of 3 sequel
      • The Quest of Salvation Part II of 3
      • The Quest of Salvation Part 3 of 3
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  Welcome

Introduction to the DNA

3/12/2016

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The aim of this article, aims to inform you the difference between DNA, genes and chromosomes. To identify and understand the structure of the DNA molecule. To understand the differences between the DNA in eukaryotic and prokaryotic cells. This is needed to be clarified before my upcoming article about DNA damage and its link to cancer in sha Allah

In the human body, we have millions of eukaryotic cells. Amongst the organelles in the cell is the nucleus that contains the genetic information in the form of deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) to control the cell. It is important to note that there are other types of eukaryotic cells besides the animal cell. These are plants, fungi and protists. The structure of a eukaryotic cell is shown below:
Picture
The relationship between genes, chromosomes and DNA
The nucleus consists of chromosomes. Chromosomes are synthesised from long DNA molecules. A gene is a short section of DNA. A gene occupies a fixed position, called a locus, on a particular DNA molecule. Each gene codes for a polypeptide (protein) by stating the order of the amino acids sequence. A polypeptide are lots of amino acids monomers bind together via peptide bonds to form protein polymers. This is done via a condensation reaction where water is also produced as a by-product. Therefore, the function of DNA is to produce proteins.
​
Picture
What is DNA?
It is a nucleic acid polymer that consists of monomers called nucleotides that are bound together via a condensation reaction. Water is also formed in the reaction as a by-product.
 
A nucleotide is composed of the following elements:
Picture
The structure of the nucleotide
 
A nucleotide consists of three components:
A)   a phosphate group
B)   a sugar
C)   a nitrogenous base.

Picture
Phosphate molecule
The phosphate group is negatively charged and this provides the nucleic acid with acidic properties. It is attached to the 5’ carbon of the sugar molecule
Sugar molecule
It is a 5-carbon sugar called a pentose. There are two types of pentose sugars: ribose and deoxyribose. Deoxyribose means that the ribose has lost an oxygen atom ‘de-oxy’.
Picture
Nitrogenous base
There are four nucleobases: cytosine ( C), Guanine (G), Thymine (T) and Adenine (A). These are attached in the position where the hydroxyl group (-OH) is located in the sugar molecule which is 1’ carbon.
​
Picture
The bases are known by their first letters. Because there are four different bases, the nucleotide is named based on the type of base as shown below:
Picture
However, this is not to say that more phosphate groups cannot be added to the nucleotide. For instance, Adenosine Triphosphate (ATP) has three phosphate groups and plays a role in respiration as energy is provided as ATP.
​
Nucleotide polymerisation
Nucleotides polymerisation does not involve the bases and is conducted by producing phosphodiester bonds between carbon 3' of the ribose sugar and an oxygen atom of the phosphate group. This is a form of a condensation reaction.
 
Two nucleotides: dinucleotides
Three nucleotides: trinucleotides
Few nucleotides: oligonucleotides.
Many nucleotides: polynucleotides
 
A polynucleotide has a free phosphate group at one end, called the 5' end. This is because the phosphate group is bound to carbon 5' of the ribose sugar. This forms the sugar phosphate backbone. There is a 3’ end because there is a hydroxyl (-OH) group on carbon 3’ of the ribose sugar.

Picture
Two scientists,Watson and Crick in 1953, investigated the 3D DNA structure more closely and discovered that the DNA molecule has the following:

  • Double stranded as there are two nucleotide strands wounded together to form a double helix.

  • The strands are wounded together by hydrogen bonding between the bases. This form of bonding provides stability and protection from damage.

  • The bases form specific pairs: Adenine can only associate with Thymine whereas Cytosine can only associate with Guanine.This is known as complementary base pairing. This structure allows DNA to be adapted to its function as storying and expressing genetic material.

  • These strands are anti-parallel, in other words they run opposite direction.

  • The strands are complementary which provides a copy of genetic information. This is beneficial for repair, copy and checking errors.
 
Purines and Pyrimidines.
There are two forms of nitrogenous bases: purines and pyrimidines. Purines are double-ringed structures whereas pyrimidines have one ring.

  • Adenine (A) - a purine
  • Thymine (T) - a pyrimidine
  • Cytosine(C) - a pyrimidine
  • Guanine (G) - a purine
Picture
The Genetic Code    
The genetic code is universal, non-overlapping and degenerate. There are 20 different amino acids and 4 different bases. Therefore, bases are read in groups of 3 called a triplet. Consequently, this provides 64 combinations that is more than sufficient enough to code for the 20 amino acids. A sequence of three DNA bases that code for an amino acid is called a codon. The 64 codons form the genetic code. Some codons symbolise the start of a gene whereas other codons symbolise the end of the gene.
Picture
However, it is important to note that approximately 2% of all DNA molecules situated in eukaryotic cells do not code for polypeptides. The remaining DNA molecules are called non-coding DNA and they do not produce genes. There are two types of non-coding DNA and is dependent on where it is situated:
  • In a gene:  non-coding DNA are called introns whereas the coding DNA molecules are called exons. All eukaryotic genes contain introns and their length is longer than exons. Introns are utilized for interruption sequences whereas eukaryotic genes are needed for expressed sequences.
  • Between genes: non-coding DNA are called satellite DNA and are composed of simple repetitive DNA sequences that function in various means: DNA replication, gene regulation, aiding in coiling DNA into chromosomes, and some non-coding DNA are pseudogenes. Pseudogenes are untouched gene copies.
The differences between the DNA in Prokaryotic and Eukaryotic cells
Picture
Prokaryotic cells have a simple structure and a cell size of 1-10um and have a large surface area to volume. This increases their metabolic and growth rates providing a shorter generation time in comparison to eukaryotic cells. Examples of Prokaryotes are bacteria and archae. They do not have a nuclear membrane around its DNA nor contains any membrane-bound organelles. Majority of prokaryotes are unicellular (one cell), however some prokaryotic cells are multicellular (more than one cell) such as cyanobacteria.
​

Alternatively, eukaryotic cells have a complex structure and it has a membrane bound nuclei. Examples of eukaryotic cells are plants and animal cells. The size of eukaryotes is 10-100um.
Key Points to Remember
  • Gene --> DNA --> Chromosomes.
  • Adenosine always binds with Thymine
  • Guanine always binds with Cysteine.
  • Prokaryotes have DNA molecules are short, circular and not associated with histone proteins. On the other hand, eukaryotes DNA are long, linear and associated with histone proteins.
  • Mitochondria and Chloroplasts contain DNA and are similar to prokaryotic DNA as they are short, circular and not linked with histone proteins.
  • Most eukaryotic nuclear DNA do not code for polypeptides (proteins).
  • Exons in a gene code for amino acids and are separated by non-coding sequences called introns.
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